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Abraham Maslow, a humanistic psychologist, developed a theory of motivation that emphasized psychological growth.
Like psychoanalysis, humanistic psychology included influential theories of personality and a form of psychotherapy. Although the biological perspective was important when psychology was first founded, it is of little interest in contemporary psychology. Neuroscience, an area within the biological perspective, emphasizes the importance of the brain and the nervous system in explaining people's behavior.
The behavioral perspective of psychology focuses on how behavior is acquired through unconscious influences and early childhood experiences. The humanistic perspective of psychology focuses on the motivation of people to grow psychologically. Positive psychology is a field of psychological research that focuses on the study of positive psychological states, positive individual traits, and social institutions that foster these qualities in individuals and communities.
Positive psychology focuses on developing therapeutic techniques that increase personal well-being rather than just alleviating the troubling symptoms of psychological disorders. Watson and Skinner led "the cognitive revolution" and returned psychology to the study of mental processes. Cognitive psychologists did not agree with the behavioral perspective in psychology because cognitive psychologists thought that it was important to investigate how mental processes influence behavior.
A cognitive psychologist might use a computer metaphor for human memory, suggesting that long-term memory is like the hard drive and short-term memory is like RAM.
The emergence of the cognitive perspective in psychology in the s represented a return to psychology's historical roots by focusing on how mental processes influence behavior.
The development of the first computers in the s was a contributing factor to the cognitive revolution in psychology. Studying the differences among various cultures that exist in the world today and examining their influence on behavior are fundamental goals of cross-cultural psychology.
Culture is a broad term that refers to the attitudes, values, beliefs, and behaviors shared by a group of people and communicated from one generation to another.
Norms of social behavior are virtually identical in all developed countries. Cultural norms are unwritten rules of behavior that are acted on with little thought once they have been learned and internalized. It is a universal cultural norm that infants and toddlers are not routinely supposed to sleep in the same bed as their parents. To promote greater tolerance and acceptance of cultural differences, ethnocentrism should be encouraged. Ethnocentrism is the use of our own culture as the standard for judging other cultures.
Individualistic cultures emphasize the importance of the individual in meeting the needs and the goals of the cultural group. Collectivistic cultures are cultures that stress individual goals and achievements over the goals and achievements of the group. Many cultures are neither completely individualistic nor completely collectivistic, but fall somewhere between the two extremes.
Cross-cultural psychologists have found that Chinese individuals worked harder on a task when they were alone compared to when they worked in groups. Cross-cultural psychologists have found that there are absolutely no psychological processes that are shared by all humans. Biological psychology refers to the application of the principles of evolution to explain psychological processes and phenomena. Evolutionary psychology is most interested in the evolution of the unconscious into consciousness.
According to proponents of evolutionary psychology, psychological processes that helped individuals adapt to their environment also helped them to survive, reproduce, and pass on those psychological mechanisms to their offspring. Psychologists who take the evolutionary perspective apply the principles of evolution, including natural selection, to explain psychological processes and phenomena.
Evolutionary psychologists emphasize studying the physical bases of human and animal behavior, including the nervous system, endocrine system, immune system, and genetics.
Psychologists have concluded that it is impossible to apply the principle of natural selection to psychological processes. Clinical psychologists study people with psychological disorders while psychiatrists actually treat them. A clinical psychologist holds a doctorate in psychology whereas a psychiatrist holds a medical degree. All psychiatrists and clinical psychologists can prescribe medications and treat mental illness with a variety of medical procedures.
A clinical psychologist can hospitalize people and order biomedical therapies, such as transcranial magnetic stimulation TMS or electroconvulsive therapy ECT. According to the information presented with the table in Chapter 1, among psychologists who recently received their doctorate, most chose "clinical psychology" as their specialty area. Biological psychologists study the relationship between psychological processes and the body's physical systems, including the brain and the rest of the nervous system, the endocrine system, the immune system, and genetics.
Rice studies the causes, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of different types of behavioral and emotional disorders, such as anxiety, major depressive disorders, and eating disorders. She is most likely a clinical psychologist. Cognitive psychologists primarily investigate the social, psychological, and physical changes that occur at different ages and stages of the lifespan, from conception to death. Bremmer investigates mental processes, including reasoning and thinking, problem solving, memory, perception, memory, and language.
Bremmer is a cognitive psychologist. Counseling psychology helps people of all ages adjust, adapt, and cope with personal and interpersonal problems in diverse areas such as relationships, work, education, marriage, child rearing, and aging. Educational psychology is a specialty area in psychology that studies how people of all ages learn. Educational psychologists use psychological theory and knowledge to enhance athletic performance, motivation, and consistency.
Experimental psychology is a term used to describe research focused on basic psychological topics such as sensory and perceptual processes, learning, emotion, and motivation.
Educational psychology is a specialty area that investigates research focused on basic psychological topics such as sensory and perceptual processes, learning, emotion, and motivation. The specialty area that studies the physical, social, and psychological changes that occur at different ages and stages of the lifespan, from conception to old age is developmental psychology.
Personality psychologists study individual differences in people and the characteristics that make each person unique. In his research, Dr.
Klein explores how people are affected by their social environments. He is particularly interested in helping behavior, conformity, obedience, prejudice, and aggression. Klein is a social psychologist. All psychologists are automatically health psychologists because they are trained to administer psychotherapy to people with mental disorders. As scientists, psychologists are guided by several attitudes, including being open-minded, maintaining a healthy sense of scientific skepticism, and critically evaluating the evidence for new findings.
In striving to identify and understand consistent patterns of behavior, psychologists are skeptical. That is, they are willing to consider new or alternative explanations of behavior and mental processes. In striving to identify and understand consistent patterns of behavior, psychologists are open-minded. Psychologists' open-minded attitude is tempered by a healthy sense of scientific skepticism.
That is, psychologists critically evaluate the evidence for new findings, especially those that seem contrary to established knowledge. Psychologists assume that behavior and mental processes follow consistent patterns. The scientific method is rarely used in psychology, as psychologists value "common sense," subjective experience, and expert opinions more highly than so-called empirical evidence. A hypothesis is a tentative explanation that tries to integrate and account for the relationship of various findings and observations.
An operational definition defines a variable in terms of how it is to be measured, manipulated, or changed. A hypothesis is to a question as a theory is to a model. If a finding is statistically significant, it is likely that the result is due to chance. A statistical technique called "meta-analysis" is used to analyze the results of many studies on a single topic. Replication of research findings increases confidence in the accuracy of the findings. Descriptive research is a strategy for observing and describing behavior.
Descriptive research includes correlational studies, case studies, surveys, and naturalistic observation. The basic goal of naturalistic observation is to do an in-depth study of a single individual's behavior. Researchers using naturalistic observation try not to be detected by their participants since detection might interfere with the naturally occurring behavior. The word pseudo means "rare" or "unusual. A pseudoscience is a theory, method, or practice that promotes claims in ways that appear scientific even though supporting empirical evidence is lacking or nonexistent.
Magnet therapy is the practice of applying magnets to the body to supposedly treat various conditions and ailments. Magnet therapy has been shown to be very effective in treating various ailments and conditions. The use of anecdotes or testimonials is a common strategy in promoting pseudoscientific claims. Proponents of pseudoscience frequently use scientific jargon without scientific substance to promote their claims.
Mixing bits of established scientific knowledge with completely unfounded claims is a common strategy used to promote pseudoscience. An irrefutable or nonfalsifiable claim is one that can be proven or tested empirically. The confirmation bias is the tendency to seek out evidence that confirms a claim or belief, while ignoring evidence that contradicts or undermines the claim or belief.
Confirmation bias refers to the empirical or scientific evidence that is used to confirm or support pseudoscientific claims. In science, the reTspeosntsiBbialintykfofroprrPovsiyncghthoelovaglyidi8tythofEadciltaiiomnrebsyts Hwiothcktheonsebmurayking the claim. Pseudoscientists often claim that the responsibility for proving or disproving the validity of their claims rests with the skeptics, not with them.
When pseudoscientists fail to deliver on their promises, they invariably offer a variety of excuses, a strategy called "multiple outs. Psychological records, medical records, and even school records may be examined in a case study. The case study method is often used to help develop a profile of a psychotherapy client. One advantage offered by survey research is that information can be gathered from a large group of people about the cause and effect of some phenomenon.
For survey results to apply to a particular group, every person within that group must respond to the survey questionnaire. A sample is always representative of the population from which it is taken. A representative sample very closely matches the population from which it is drawn.
Random selection is a process in which participants are chosen randomly from a larger group such that every group member has an equal chance of being included in the study.
A correlation coefficient always falls in the range from —1. An increased number of hours watching television is associated with decreased grades on school tests. This finding represents a positive correlation. Compared to a correlation of —0. A negative correlation is one in which both factors decrease together.
A positive correlation reflects a cause-and-effect relationship between two variables, while a negative correlation indicates the absence of a cause-and-effect relationship between the variables. Even if two factors are very strongly correlated, correlation does NOT necessarily indicate causality. Experimental research is a method used to demonstrate cause-and-effect relationships by purposely manipulating one factor thought to produce change in another factor.
The dependent variable is the factor that is observed and measured for change in an experiment and is thought to be influenced by the independent variable. In an experiment, the independent variable is the purposely manipulated factor thought to produce change in the dependent variable. The dependent variable is also called the "treatment variable.
Extraneous variables are factors other than the ones being studied that, if not controlled, could affect the outcome of the experiment. In an experiment, the group of participants who are exposed to the experimental condition of the independent variable is called the "experimental group" or "experimental condition.
The experimental group or experimental condition is the group of participants who are exposed to an experimental condition, including the independent variable or treatment variable. Random assignment means that all participants in the study have an equal chance of being assigned to any of the groups or conditions in an experiment. Random assignment helps ensure that potential differences among participants are spread out across all experimental conditions.
The control group or control condition is the group of participants who are exposed to an experimental condition of the independent variable or treatment variable, and against which changes in the experimental group are compared. Participants in the control group undergo none of the experimental conditions except the independent variable or treatment variable. Experimental controls are specific strategies and procedures that help minimize the possibility that extraneous variables or some other uncontrolled factor will influence the outcome of the experiment.
The double-blind technique is used to guard against the possibility that the researcher will display subtle cues or signals that communicate what is expected from the participants. The purpose of the double-blind technique is to guard against the possibility that the researcher will inadvertently become an extraneous or confounding variable and display demand characteristics. In a double-blind experiment, participants are both blindfolded and placed in a soundproof chamber.
The experimental technique in which the researchers, but not the participants, are aware of the critical information about the experiment is called the double-blind technique. In a double-blind study, neither the researcher nor the participant is aware of the experimental condition to which the participant is assigned. The placebo group is a control group in which participants are exposed to a fake independent variable, or placebo.
The effects of the placebo are compared to the effects of the actual independent variable on the experimental group. This group serves as a check for practice effects and expectancy effects. A placebo is a fake and inert substance, procedure, or treatment that has no known direct effects. In a research study, subtle cues or signals expressed by the researcher that communicate the kind of response or behavior that is expected from the participant are referred to as practice effects.
Any change in performance that results from mere repetition of a task is called a "demand characteristic. In the ginkgo biloba experiment, the participants in both the experimental group and the placebo control group improved on the cognitive tests because of the practice effect. If an experiment is conducted properly, a control group is unnecessary. A natural experiment is a study investigating the effects of a naturally occurring event on the research participants.
In one natural experiment investigating weight gain during the first year of college, it was found that female students assigned to dormitories with food service reported eating more meals and more snacks, but they did not report gaining weight. In one natural experiment investigating weight gain during the first year of college, it was found that female students who were assigned to dormitories with on-site dining facilities gained more weight and exercised less than students who were assigned to dormitories without food services.
In one natural experiment investigating weight gain during the first year of college, it was found that male students assigned to dormitories with food service reported eating more meals and more snacks, but they did not report gaining weight. In one natural experiment investigating weight gain during the first year of college, it was found that male students who were assigned to dormitories with on-site dining facilities gained more weight and exercised less than students who were assigned to dormitories without food services.
Students who are enrolled in a psychology class can be forced to participate in experiments and other types of research as part of the course requirements. The use of deception in psychology experiments has been banned by the American Psychological Association since the s.
If a student is enrolled in a psychology class, then it is unnecessary to obtain informed consent from the person if he or she is taking part in an experiment that is a requirement of the class. When a student participates as a research subject to fulfill a course requirement, the student must be given a choice of an alternative activity to fulfill the course requirement.
Informed consent in a psychology experiment means that the research participants understand the nature of the study and that they are free to withdraw from the research at any time.
Researchers adhere to ethical guidelines by allowing students who don't want to participate in an experiment the option of choosing a different activity to fulfill the class requirement or to get extra credit. Comparative psychology is the branch of psychology that studies the behavior of different animal species. Comparative psychology studies the behavior of children and adults and compares their differences over the lifespan.
Nonhuman animal participants are used in the vast majority of psychological studies conducted each year in this country.
Apes and monkeyTseasrte,Bbaynfakr,ftohre mPsoystcchoomlmogonyly8uthsedEndointihounmbanyaHnimocalkseinn bpusyrcyhological research in the United States. If the research cannot be done with humans, then it is also not ethical to use nonhuman animals. Although the American Psychological Association publishes guidelines governing the treatment of humans in psychological research, it does not have similar guidelines governing the use of animals in psychological research.
Using nonhuman animal participants in research studies allows psychologists to exert a much higher degree of control over the experimental participants' environment than when human participants are involved. Psychology is formally defined as the scientific: A study of mental processes in human and nonhuman animals. B study of the cause and treatment of mental illness.
C study of behavior and mental processes. D investigation of unconscious mental processes. Which of the following best represents psychology's basic goals? A investigate and treat mental illness B describe, explain, predict, and influence behavior C listen to, counsel, and console people with problems D apply the findings of animal research to abnormal behavior Which famous Greek philosopher wrote extensively about psychological topics such as sleep and dreaming, the senses, memory, and learning?
In thinking about psychology and consciousness, the idea that the mind and the body are separate entities that interact makes a lot of sense to you. You most likely share the view of: A Aristotle. B Descartes. C Watson. D Skinner. B promoted a doctrine called "interactive dualism. D was a philosopher who wrote extensively about topics such as sleep, dreams, the senses, and memory more than 2, years ago.
Interactive dualism is the idea that: A all living organisms must interact and perform dual functions to survive. B most severe mental disorders, such as schizophrenia, involve a splitting of the mind. C mind and body are separate entities that interact to produce conscious experiences. D people with very diverse qualities and beliefs are most likely to be attracted to each other. Which of the following statements is TRUE? A The Greek philosopher Aristotle first defined psychology as the "scientific study of behavior and mental processes.
C The mind—body issue has now been settled and psychologists no longer explore the relationship between mental activity and the brain.
D The principle of interactive dualism was formulated by Aristotle more than 2, years ago. For centuries, philosophers debated which was more important: the inborn of the individual or the environmental influences that the individual.
Which of the following fields had the greatest impact on the emergence of psychology as a separate scientific discipline? A history B mathematics C physics D physiology Physiology is: A a branch of biology that studies the functions and parts of living organisms, including humans.
B the idea that mind and body are separate entities. C the first major school of thought in psychology. D sometimes referred to as the "third force" in American psychology. How did physiology contribute to the emergence of psychology as a separate scientific discipline? A In defining the boundaries of their science, physiologists rejected the study of mental processes and behavior.
B Physiologists in the late nineteenth century proposed that psychology should be a separate subdiscipline of philosophy. C Physiologists demonstrated that scientific methods could be applied to understanding human behavior and mental processes. D Physiologists in the late nineteenth century were unable to apply scientific methods to the study of human behavior and thinking, and consequently psychology was no longer part of that discipline.
Wilhelm Wundt investigated which of the following phenomena? A nature versus nurture issue and interactive dualism B fundamental psychological processes, such as mental reaction times in response to visual and auditory stimuli C mental disorders and abnormal behavior D damaged areas of the human brain Wilhelm Wundt: A was a German physiologist who established the first psychology research laboratory at the University of Leipzig.
B was a French philosopher who proposed the idea of interactive dualism. C is credited with the discovery of unconscious mental processes. D was an Austrian physician who founded the psychoanalytic school of psychology. Wilhelm Wundt outlined the connections between physiology and psychology in: A his famous textbook titled Principles of Physiological Psychology, published in B a series of famous lectures at Clark University in C a public debate with William James at Harvard University.
D his famous book Principles of Psychology, published in two volumes in Which of the following events do most historians consider to mark the formal beginning of psychology as a scientific discipline? A Aristotle's landmark essay in B. Wilhelm Wundt defined psychology as: A a new branch of physiology. B the study of the behavior of humans and other animals.
C a branch of philosophy, not science. D the study of consciousness. Wilhelm Wundt opened the first psychology laboratory in: A B C D Test Bank for Psychology 8th Edition by Hockenbury Which of the following was the first "school" of thought or approach in psychology? A structuralism B functionalism C behaviorism D psychoanalysis Which early approach or "school" of psychology is associated with Wilhelm Wundt's student Edward Titchener?
A behaviorism B humanistic psychology C functionalism D structuralism The early psychological school called "structuralism" emphasized the study of: A habits and adaptive behavior. B physiology.
C the relative importance of nature versus nurture. D the elemental components of conscious experience. B behaviorism. C functionalism. D structuralism. You are a subject in an experiment in which you are told: "Look at this apple very carefully and tell me your exact sensations and feelings as you experience them. A psychoanalysis B functionalism C structuralism D behaviorism Structuralism: A promoted the use of nonhuman animals to study brain functions.
B ended when Descartes demonstrated that the brain consisted of multiple structures, not one. C was based on the idea that even our most complex conscious experiences could be broken down into basic mental "structures" of sensations and feelings. D contended that basic human thoughts are contained in common genetic structures that are passed from generation to generation.
Which early school of psychology relied on a method called "introspection"? A functionalism B humanism C behaviorism D structuralism Which of the following people played a key role in establishing psychology as a scientific discipline in the United States? Who wrote the landmark textbook Principles of Psychology?
A John B. Skinner D William James Which of the early schools of psychology was the first to disappear? A psychoanalysis B functionalism C behaviorism D structuralism B Sigmund Freud.
D John B. Which school of psychology would agree that "psychology should stress the study of how behavior and mental processes allow people and animals to adapt to their environments"? A structuralism B behaviorism C functionalism D psychoanalysis Both structuralists and functionalists agreed that: A psychology should focus not on the study of conscious experience but rather on the investigation of observable behaviors.
B psychologists should directly observe the behaviors of animals in natural settings. C psychology should study conscious experience. D psychological findings should be applied to areas like education, mental illness, health, and child rearing. Who was the first person to be awarded a Ph.
Skinner B John B. Watson C Francis C. Sumner D G. Stanley Hall Which of the following psychologists founded the American Psychological Association? A William James B G. Stanley Hall C John B. Watson D Mary Whiton Calkins A Calkins was the first woman president of the American Psychological Association. B Calkins conducted research on dreams, memory, and personality. C Calkins established a psychology laboratory at Wellesley College. D Calkins founded behaviorism as one of the early schools of psychology.
A She was the first woman to study with Wilhelm Wundt and receive a Ph. B She was the first woman president of the American Psychological Association and conducted research on dreams, memory, and personality. C In she published an influential textbook titled The Animal Mind. D She was a comparative psychologist who conducted groundbreaking research on the giant panda. Why was Mary Whiton Calkins denied the Ph. A Her research was in an area called "comparative psychology," which was not recognized as a legitimate part of scientific psychology at Harvard University at the time.
B At the time, Harvard University forbade the use of nonhuman animals in psychology research. C William James was opposed to opening the field of psychology to women and refused to support her application despite the fact that she was his most brilliant student. D She was a woman, and at the time Harvard was not a coeducational institution. B were students of G. C were elected president of the American Psychological Association.
D were students of Francis C. The first U. B Margaret Floy Washburn. D Francis C. Which of the following early psychologists wrote The Animal Mind and strongly advocated the scientific study of the mental processes of different animal species? Titchener The first African American to receive a Ph.
B Abraham Maslow.
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